George J.Stigler对经济学的贡献！

发现金属与硅晶体接触能有整流作用的半导体整流效应。20年代，随着

半导体光生伏打效应和整流效应进入商业利用的发展时期，人们注意到这两种效应只是

半导体的表面效应，而光电导性和电阻的负温度系数则是同半导体材料整体相关. 一、道理的一般与一般道理

如果说产业组织理论是对经济学原有内容的一种“深化”的话，信息经济学和管制

经济 学可以说是对经济学研究范围的一种“扩充”——它是将经济学的基本原理或“一

般道理” ，即建立在损益比较基础上的理性选择和经济均衡理论，伸延开去对信息和政

府管制这两种 特殊的“经济物品”的供求关系及均衡“产量”的决定，进行系统的理论

分析。

二、管制也是“内生变量”

政府管制是一种特殊的经济组织形式或经济制度。在传统的新古典经济理论中，

它象所 有制以及政府经济政策一样，被视为经济体系或反映这一现实体系的理论模型中

的一个“外 定条件”，当作“外生变量”来处理(其他的外生变量还有资源存量、技术

知识以及国际环 境等等)，在给定“管制”(比如“价格上限”或“税率”)的前提下，

研究人们的经济行为 和各种“内生变量”(产量、供求等等)的决定过程。

三 谁在管制和对谁的管制

政府管制，也称“公共管制”(Public regulation)。损益比较、理性选择、势力

均衡 这些经济学的一般道理，在应用于对政府管制这一现象的分析过程中，遇到的一个

特殊的观 念上的障碍就是：由于管制总是政府的管制，而政府在人们(包括经济学家们

)的心日中总是 或者说“总应该是”公共利益或全社会利益的代表，因而管制的形成过

程，也就自然地被认 为是政府出于最大化社会福利的考虑而实行的一种政策；

四 经济学家的“书生气”

施蒂格勒当初曾批驳的一个观点就是那种假设政府以及政府管制必然代表“真正的

公共 利益”的理论。在他所倡导的管制经济学形成之后，这种观念也并没有完全消除。

我们在经 济学文献中经常可以看到：一方面，许多理论家从政府管制符合公共利益这一

假设出发进行 论证，而论证的结果便往往是发现现实中的某种管制如何存在“错误”；

另一方面，即使承 认现实的情况并不那么美好，许多经济学家也仍然想方设法从公共利

益或全民社会福利出发 ，论证政府应该做什么

adj. capable of being renewedreplaceable

“ renewable  energy such as solar energy is theoretically inexhaustible”

Synonyms: inexhaustible    incapable of being entirely consumed or used up

that can be renewed or extended

“ renewable  subscriptions”

Antonyms:  nonrenewable , unrenewable    that can not be renewed

A space heater is a device for heating an enclosed area. Space heating is generally employed to warm a small space, and is usually held in contrast with central heating , which warms many connected spaces at once. Permanently installed space heaters may burn natural gas , propane 丙烷, fuel oil 燃料油, or wood pellets （原料以以木屑、秸秆为主，燃烧效率高，可再生且无害于环境）use electricity for resistance heatingor use a heat pump that can also provide air conditioning . For portable use, electric heaters are most appropriate because gas heating can be very dangerous without a permanent flue.

A motor fuel is a fuel that is used to provide power to motor vehicles .Currently, the majority of motor vehicles worldwide are powered by gasoline or diesel. Other energy sources include ethanol, biodiesel, propane, compressed natural gas (CNG), electric batteries charged from an external source, and hydrogen. 

The term  off-the-grid  ( OTG ) can refer to living in a self-sufficient manner without reliance on one or more public utilities.

A  heat pump  is a device that transfers heat energy from a source of heat to a destination called a "heat sink". Heat pumps are designed to move  thermal energy  热能 in the opposite direction of spontaneous heat transfer by absorbing heat from a cold space and releasing it to a warmer one.While  air conditioners  and  freezers  are familiar examples of heat pumps, the term "heat pump" is more general and applies to many  HVAC  (heating, ventilating通风, and air conditioning) devices used for space heating or space cooling.

2.subsidy    n. a grant paid by a government to an enterprise that benefits the public

A  subsidy  is a grant of financial assistance. Subsidies  are most often offered by the government, but individuals can offer  subsidies  as well. "The parents offered to give a  subsidy  for students to go on the ski trip. The deal was that if the kids earned half the money, the parents would pay for the other half."

#  Is "predatory competition" based on state  subsidies , lower wages, or just smarter business and manufacturing strategy.

3.utility

Utility  means “ of practical use .” We refer to government facilities that provide water, electricity and natural gas as public utilities 公共事业.  Utility  is similar to the word  utilize , which is basically a stuffy word for  use. 

public utility        a company that performs a public servicesubject to government regulation

# Energy Northwest, a public utility consortium that operates the plant, is criticizing the report.

4.Wildpoldsried  [德国] 维尔德波尔茨里德

The village has been recognized for its exceptional achievements in renewable energy production and in reducing its carbon footprint.

德国Wildpoldsried小镇以再生能源致富

5.electricity grid

An electrical grid is an interconnected network for delivering electricity from suppliers to consumers. It consists of generating stations that produce electrical power, high-voltage transmission lines that carry power from distant sources to demand centers, and distribution lines that connect individual customers.

电力系统中各种电压的变电所及输配电线路组成的整体，称为电力网，简称 电网 。它包含变电、输电、配电三个单元。电力网的任务是输送与分配电能，改变电压。

6.solar/wind generators  太阳能/风力发电机

7.an energy-storage firm  蓄能公司

8.fossil-fuel age   矿物燃料时代

化石燃料也称矿石燃料，其包括的天然资源为煤炭、石油和天然气等，是由死去的有机物和植物在地下分解而形成的，是不可再生资源。当发电的时候，在燃烧化石燃料的过程中会产生能量，从而推动涡轮机产生动力。

9. decarbonise the electricity supply

remove carbon from (an engine)   除去碳素

# The pressure to decarbonize will increase in the face of overwhelming evidence of climate change.

10.hydroelectric, nuclear plants

hydroelectric  a. of or relating to or used in the production of electricity by waterpower 水力发电的

plant  n.buildings for carrying on industrial labor   # they built a large plant to manufacture automobiles

11. diesel generators 

an internal-combustion engine that burns heavy oil  n.柴油机

12. crowdsourcing of PV( photovoltaic ) installations

crowdsourcing 众包 众包指的是一个公司或机构把过去由员工执行的工作任务，以自由自愿的形式外包给非特定的（而且通常是大型的）大众网络的做法。

photovoltaic           producing a voltage电压 when exposed to radiant energy (especially light) 光生伏打的

太阳能光伏发电系统（Solar power system）的简称，是一种利用太阳电池半导体材料的光伏效应，将太阳光辐射能直接转换为电能的一种新型发电系统。

Photovoltaics (PV) covers the conversion of light into electricity using semiconducting有半导体特性的 materials that exhibit the photovoltaic effect, a phenomenon studied in physics, photochemistry, and electrochemistry.

A typical photovoltaic system employs solar panels, each comprising a number of solar cells, which generate electrical power. PV installations may be ground-mounted, rooftop mounted or wall mounted. The mount may be fixed, or use a solar tracker to follow the sun across the sky.【place or fix (an object) on an elevated support 安装…于高处 # fluorescent lights are mount ed on the ceiling.天花板上装了荧光灯】

小标题

less dear, still disruptive

from dull to death spiral

from dromedary to dark

waiting for enlightenment

1.glut    n. a situation in which there is more of sth than is needed or can be used 供应过剩；供过于求 

# a glut of cheap videos on the market 市场上供过于求的廉价录像带

2.lower wholesale prices  降低批发价

the selling of goods to merchantsusually in large quantities for resale to consumers 大规模买卖

3.intermittent    a. stopping and starting at irregular intervals

# intermittent bursts of applause一阵阵的掌声

# intermittent showers 阵雨

4. cling on

cling on 表示 “坚持/固守” ,如：

～You shouldn't cling on to that.你不该死抠住这一点不放.

～Don't we need to cling on to the job? 难道我们不需要坚持做这项工作吗?

cling to 表示 “依附”,如:

～How can you rid yourself of what you cling to? 你怎么可能摆脱自己所依附的东西呢?

～All of the dust clings to the inside of the fur. 所有的灰尘都吸附皮毛内部.

5. drag down prices

6. make up 100% of the market

（1）编、编造。其宾语通常为故事、诗歌、借口一类的名词。

The teacher asked the students to make up a poem about Christmas.

（2）弥补、把…补上。弥补的内容为某人之前失去的东西或没有按时完成的事情。

John must make up the work he missed.

（3）构成。其主语是若干个个体，其宾语为由这些个体构成的整体。当句子是被动结构时，其后应加of。

Nine players make up a team.

（4）化装、打扮。化装或打扮的部位是脸部，可同时作不及物动词和及物动词。

The actors were making (themselves) up when we arrived.

（5）凑足、补足。意为凑足或补足所需的数目。

We need one more player --- will you make the number?