英语叙述英国经济历史

The Background of Religion Reformation in Britain

Abstract：throughout history，so many important historic reformations happened and they have their reasons and background Generally speaking, the reformation is in favor with the general public This paper talks about the background of Religion Reformation in Britain including HenryⅧ，his nation and the society Key word: religion reformation HenryⅧ divorce 1 The introduction and influence of the reformation Religion reformation in Britain in 16th century is a top-down religious reformation HenryⅧ’s divorce is the blasting fuse of the reformation , however , what is hit behind the reformation is incisive social and historical reasons that are not to be ignored It is in favor of new bourgeoisie, ordinary squires and the labor people British religion reformation is an important part in all of religious reformation in Western Europe in 16th century, which makes the British reformation accomplished successfully What is more, Religion Reformation consolidates the feudal kingship and strong promotes the development of capitalism 2 The blasting fuse of the reformation In 1531, HenryⅧ wishes to divorce Catherine of Aragon because the marriage has not produced a male heir His marriage normally would be illegal under ecclesiastical law because Catherine was the widow of his brother, but it had been allowed by a special dispensation from the Pope Henry claims that the papal dispensation contradicted ecclesiastical law and that therefore the marriage is invalid The Pope upholds the validity of the dispensation and refuses to annul the marriage Later in 1533, Henry marries Anne Boleyn, and two months later he had the archbishop of Canterbury pronounce his divorce from Catherine At the same year, Henry is excommunicated by the Pope In 1534, Henry has Parliament pass an act appointing the king and his successor supreme head of the Church of England, thus establishing an independent national Anglican church 3HenryⅧ and his domination Tracing back in the past, HenryⅦ had restored stability and royal authority, but it may have been for the reasons of character, as much as policy, that his son resolved to augment his regal power Therefore Henry’s reformation of the English church involved more complex motives and methods than his desire for a new wife and a heir Henry asserted that his first marriage had never been valid, but the divorce issue was only one factor in Henry’s desire to reform the church In 1532-1537, he instituted a number of statues, the act of appeal (Statute in restraint of Appeals, 1533), the various Act of Succession (1533, 1534 and 1536) the first Act of Supremacy (1536) and others --- that dealt with the relationship between the king and the Pope and the structure of the Church of England Many factors contributed to the reformation: the decline of feudalism and the rise of nationalism, the rise of the common law, the invention of the printing press and increased circulation of the bible, the transmission of new knowledge and ideas among scholars and the upper classes The English reformation was at the outset more of a political affairs than a theological dispute Henry was a good enough of theologian to know that there was a minority opinion in western Christendom to precisely this effect He was enough of an egotist, too, to fall captive to his own powers of persuasion ---soon he believed that papal primacy was unquestionably a sham, a ploy of human invention to deprive kings and emperors of their legitimate inheritances Henry looked back to the golden days of the British imperial past, to the time of the Emperors Constantine and of King LuciusⅠ In fact LuciusⅠhad never existed ---he was a myth, a figment of pre-conquest imagination But Henry’s British “sources” showed that this Lucius was a great ruler, the first Christian king of Britain, who had endowed the British church with all its liberties and possessions, and then written to Pope Eleutherius asking him to transmit the Roman laws In the way of religious reformation, Henry wants to consolidate his dominated position and become a great ruler, too 4 The society at that time What is more, the trouble was that, with stability restored, and the Tudor dynasty apparently secure, England had started to become vulnerable to a mounting release of forces It used to be argued that anti –clericalism was a major cause of the English reformation, but this interpretation has lately been challenged Recent research has established that the majority of late medieval English clergy were not negligent or unqualified: Church courts were not usually unfair; probate, mortuary, and tithes disputes were few; pluralism, absenteeism, nepotism, sexual misconduct, and commercial moonlighting by clergy were less serious than once thought On the other hand there were priests who failed to hold service at the proper times, who did not preach, and whose habits were aggressive –rector of Aldington in Northampton shire, cited before the Lincoln consistory court in 1526, had two children by his cook and marched about the village in chain –mail In fact, it was all too easy for a priest to behave like other villagers: to make a mistress of his housekeeper, and to spend the day cultivating his glebe Although the English Church was free of major scandals, such abuses as non –residence, pluralism, concubinage, and the parochial clergy’s neglect to repair chancel, where these occurred, continued to attract attention Also tithes disputes, probate and mortuary fees, charges for saying mass on special occasions, and the trial and burning of heretics could become flash –points In particularly, it was pointed out by prominent writers, notably the grave and learned Christopher St German (1460—1541), that the Church’s procedure in cases of suspected heresy permitted secret accusations, hearsay evidence, and denied accused persons the benefit of purgation by oath-helpers or trial by jury, which was a Roman procedure contrary to the principles of native English common law –a clerical plot to deprive Englishman of their natural, legal rights Such ideas were manifestly explosive; for they incited intellectual affray between clergy and common lawyers All those bring the society into trouble Acknowledgement: many factors contributed to the religious reformation in Britain, so we should analysis the event objectively Henry wants to reform that is because he wants to something more, and those things are benefit for the people or not, we have been exploring References:

The Oxford History of Britain (Kenneth O Morgan) A Short History of Civilization A G Dickens, the English Reformation (London) (2nd Ed 1989) The Reformation Parliament, 1529 - 1536 (Cambridge University Press, 1970) The History of the Reformation of the Church of England by Gilbert Burnet (Oxford University Press, 1829 Christopher Haigh, English Reformations (Oxford, 1993)

望采纳。

Due to historical and ethnic reasons, by England, Northern Ireland, Welsh, Scotland countries constitute the United Kingdom, the capital was still in England London, subject or England, so it is the British ( originally British refers to England England ) The British Isles is referring to England, Scotland and Welsh, since the Northern Ireland is located in the island of Ireland, Gibraltar and many other islands area is too small, so it is not included The UK ( The United Kingdom ) social stability, stable life, low crime rate and very few acts of violence occurred Britain's mild climate, no severe cold and heat, the four seasons such as spring Britain is a multicultural and open minded society British art, music, culture and food has been subject to different countries from around the world people and the impact of the national customs, and many countries have a long and close ties Until now, it is still the United States, Canada, and Australia and New Zealand and other English countries maintained a strong relationship The UK is a member of the European Union,25years, in the maintenance and development of relations between the EU and China, it is always persist firmly in and ardent supporter Britain is the EU countries the biggest investor in china England is the first industrialized country in the world, there are many scientific discoveries and inventions, such as the steam engine, penicillin, deoxyribonucleic acid ( DNA ), dolly and jet engines and so on The British economy in the world for the fifth, and is Europe's largest financial center London financial market attracts around the world many companies to the UK business opportunity Two years, the British schools and universities as the country attract worldwide attention technical, industrial and financial revolution and development However, its world class education is much older, dating back to twelfth Century, University of Oxford (1185) and the University of Cambridge (1209) set times

八十年代债务危机 1981年—1982年

The debt crisis in 1981 eighty - 1982

1981年，危机从墨西哥开始。其到期的公共债务本息达到268．3亿美元，墨西哥无力支付本息，要求国外银行准许延期 支付，但是遭到拒绝。政府不得不在1982年夏宣布无限期关闭兑汇市场，暂停偿付 外债等措施，从此爆发了债务危机。其后，巴西、阿根廷、秘鲁等国家也相继告急。如果拉美国家 发生倒帐，作为债主的西方几百家大银行将不堪设想。

In 1981, the crisis began in Mexico The maturity of public debt and interest of $26830000000, Mexico cannot afford to pay the principal and interest, requirements of foreign bank extension of payment, but was rejected The government had declared a closed indefinitely foreign exchange market in the summer of 1982, suspend repaying debt and other measures, from the outbreak of the debt crisis Subsequently, Brazil, Argentina, Peru and other countries also have an emergency If Latin American countries have bad debt, creditor Western hundreds of big banks will be unbearable to contemplate

1990年以来，世界先后发生多次经济危机：美国1987年危机 1990年的日本房产泡沫 1994－1995年墨西哥金融危机以及1997年东南亚金融危机等涉及范围较广、影响较大的金融危机

美国1987年危机 1987年—1992年

1987 1987 - 1992 American crisis

1987年10月19日，又是一个“黑色星期一”，道指当天狂跌508点，日跌幅达2261%，道指从前日收市的224674点跌至173874点收盘。这一日跌幅排道指有史以来的第二高。美国爆发的这一“股灾”，也引发了全球股市的同步暴跌。1991年1月17日—2月28日，以美国为首多国部队发动了海湾战争。这次危机经历约两年半的始发阶段(即1987年10月至1990年初)，再经历了为时三个季度的恶化阶段（1990年），又经历了历史约两年半的危机后期阶段，共历时五年又三个季度。

In October 19, 1987, it is a "black Monday", the Dow Jones Industrial Average fell 508 points, or 2261%, the day before the closing, the Dow 224674 points to close at 173874 points Since that day fall Dow has the history of second - row This "crash" USA outbreak, also caused the collapse of global stock market synchronization January 17, 1991 - February 28th, the USA led multinational forces launched the Gulf war About two and a half years experience at the beginning of this crisis (1987 October to early 1990), and then experienced a deterioration stage for three quarter (1990), and again after the crisis at a later stage of history about two and a half years, lasted five years and three months

日本房产泡沫 1990年

The Japanese real estate bubble in 1990

日本在20世纪90年代暴发的经济危机,被称为是日本“失去的十年”。此次危机以1991年初四大证券公司舞弊丑闻被曝光为暴发点,经济形势急转直下,从泡沫景气转为衰退和萧条。

Japan outbreak in twentieth Century 90's economic crisis, known as Japan's "lost ten years" The crisis in 1991 on the big securities fraud scandal for the outbreak of a sudden turn for the worse, economic situation, from the bubble boom to recession and depression

墨西哥金融危机 1994年—1995年

The financial crisis in Mexico in 1994 - 1995

亚州金融危机 1997年—1998年

The Asian financial crisis in 1997 - 1998

互联网泡沫危机 2000年—2001年

The Internet bubble crisis in 2000 - 2001

回顾三百年世界经济历史 迄今为止出现的以滞胀为特征（生产停滞或缓慢发展和通货膨胀现象）的严重世界性经济 分别是1973年至1975年 第十八次经济危机 1979年至1982年第十九次经济危机

A review of world economic history of three hundred years so far appear to stagflation characterized (production stagnation or slow development and the phenomenon of inflation) severe world economic respectively from 1973 to 1975 eighteenth economic crisis from 1979 to 1982 nineteenth economic crises

一般来说,出现经济危机时市场需求减少,消费低迷,导致物价指数下降,CPI降低,高速通货膨胀的现象不会出现，除非某些特殊因素 比如战争 滥发货币等。

Generally speaking, the economic crisis, the market demand, consumer downturn, leading to price index drops, CPI reduced, a high rate of inflation does not occur, unless some special factors such as war overissue currency

像这种靠年代内驱力带动的高膨胀率 在繁荣期通过工资福利的提高带动的旺盛需求来消化，通胀造成的货币贬值还可以通过工资福利的提高来抵消 但是危机年代里碰上高通胀的问题，情况就变得尤其恶劣，百业萧条，原料价格上升导致企业成本上升，大部分中小企业举步维艰 面临停工半停工破产倒闭的危险，失业率大幅上升，工作没有保障，工资会福利会缩水减少，而且手中的钱因通胀而变得不值钱。捂紧钱袋子不敢消费，除了基本的生活花销外，其他的消费市场必定萎靡，进一步加剧了萧条。

Like the time drive to drive the high expansion rate to digest in the boom by strong demand wage welfare improvement driven by inflation, currency devaluation can also through the wages and welfare increase to offset but the crisis years with high inflation problem, the situation becomes especially bad, All business languishes, raw material prices lead to rising the rise in the cost of enterprise, the majority of small and medium-sized enterprises have faced off half down the danger of bankruptcy, sharply rising unemployment, job insecurity, wages would reduce welfare will shrink, but in the hands of money due to inflation and become worthless Wujin pocketbook not consumption, in addition to the basic living expenses, other consumer market will slump, further exacerbated the depression

为什么会在这两个经济危机年代出现高物价高膨胀的现象，通过年代的相关性规律性就很容易解释得通，物价该涨的年代必涨，该跌的年代必跌。大道致简的道理，正如三百年世界经济的繁荣 衰退往返循环一样，有高峰就有低谷，并且按照预定好的年代执行，该涨就涨，该跌就跌。正如调好的闹钟，到了那个点比必被激发敲响。

The Church of England traces its formal corporate history from the 597 Augustinian mission

stresses its continuity and identity with the primitive universal Western church

and notes the consolidation of its particular independent and national character in the post-Reformation events of Tudor England Christianity arrived in Britain in the first or second century (probably via the tin trade route through Ireland and Spain)

and existed independently of the Church of Rome

as did many other Christian munities of that era Records note British bishops

such as Restitutus in attendance at the Council of Arles in 314

and

even more significantly

Britain was the home of Pelagius

who nearly defeated Augustine of Hippo's doctrine of original sin The Pope sent Saint Augustine from Rome in the 6th century to evangelise the Angles in 597 With the help of Christi already residing in Kent he established his church in Canterbury

the former capital of Kent (it is now Maidstone)

and became the first in the series of Archbishops of Canterbury A later archbishop

the Greek Theodore of Tarsus

also contributed to the anisation of English Christianity Simultaneously

the Celtic Church of St Columba continued to evangelise Scotland The Celtic Church of North Britain submitted in some sense to the 'authority' of Rome at the Synod of Whitby in 664 Over the next few centuries

the Roman system introduced by Augustine gradually absorbed the pre-existing Celtic Christian churches The English Church was under papal authority for nearly a thousand years

before separating from Rome in 1534 during the reign of King Henry VIII A theological separation had been foreshadowed by various movements within the English Church such as the Lollards

but the English Reformation gained political support when Henry VIII wanted an annulment of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon so he could marry Anne Boleyn Under pressure from Catherine's nephew

the Emperor Charles V

Holy Roman Emperor

Pope Clement VII refused the annulment

and

eventually

Henry

although theologically a doctrinal Catholic

took the position of Supreme Head of the Church of England to ensure the annulment of his marriage He was exmunicated by Pope Paul III[2] Henry maintained a strong preference for the traditional Catholic practices and

during his reign

Protestant reformers were unable to make many changes to the practices of the Church of England Indeed

this part of Henry's reign saw the trial for heresy of Protestants as well as Roman Catholics Under his son

Edward VI

however

the Church became theologically more radical

before legislatively rejoining the Roman church during the reign of Queen Mary I

in 1555 The settlement under Elizabeth I (from 1558) of a mildly reformed

Catholic

apostolic

and established church (ie

subject to and part of the state) led to great civil strife in the following century

参考:

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