读不懂-《古文献学讲义》笔记2：目录学-经部 第3-5节

目录学·经部 第3-7节

一．今文十四博士

（一）今文经含义：西汉时传经用当时通行的隶书，所以叫今文经。

（二）今文十四博士：

《诗》:有鲁(申培公),齐(辕固生),韩(燕人韩婴)。

《书》:有欧阳(欧阳生),大夏侯(夏侯胜),小夏侯(夏侯建),同出于伏生。

《礼》:有大戴(戴德),小戴(戴圣),同出于高堂生。

《易》:有施(施雠),孟(孟喜),梁丘(梁丘贺),京(京房),同出于田何。

《春秋》:有严(严彭祖),颜(颜安乐),同出于董仲舒。

此外,《论语》是兼习的,不立博士,有《鲁论》《齐论》两家

（三）今文经学的特点：

1《五经》次序,是《诗》《书》《礼》《易》《春秋》。《诗》《书》《礼》是基本功,《易》讲原则,《春秋》讲实施。

2讲家法,口授微言大义。

3特别重视《春秋公羊传》,尊孔子,说《春秋经》是为汉制作,讲政治哲学,要通经致用,其实已混进法家的东西。

4夹杂谶纬之学,讲灾异,讲天人感应,在《齐诗》《易》《公羊传》里多有这样的东西,实际上已混合了阴阳家、墨家之说,和方士的一套互相渗透。

5发展到后来繁琐,如秦近(一作延)君说《尧典》篇目十余万言,“曰若稽古”三万言。

6少讲训诂,多属哲学史的资料。但因为比较近古,所讲制度等仍有史料价值。

（四）参考书：吕诚之《秦汉史》第十九章第三节“儒家之学”,顾颉刚师《秦汉的方士与儒生》(原名《汉代学术史略》)

二．古文经学

（一）古文经含义：用古文字书写的经。

（二）孔壁得书的来源和真伪：同吕诚之认为壁中得书及孔安国进献之本无其事。但在立为博士的今文经之外,社会上仍发现其他古籍传本,则是事实。《孔壁得书》(收入《吕思勉读史札记》)

（三）古文经学各家：

《易》:费氏(费直)。

《书》:《古文尚书》,比今文多出十六篇(说是孔安国)。（前面不是说比今文尚书多出来二十五篇吗？）

《诗》:《毛诗》(毛公,后来说毛公名享),但顾颉刚师有《论毛诗序之作者》(收入《史林杂识初编》),据《后汉书·卫宏传》有“作《毛诗序》,善得《风》《雅》之旨,于今传于世”之明文,论定所谓《毛诗序》实东汉初卫宏所作

《礼》:《周官》即《周礼》(刘歆),《逸礼》。

《春秋》:《左传》(刘歆),《谷梁传》。

《论语》:《古论》。

《尔雅》。

（一）古文经学的特点：

1《五经》次序:按所认为的作者的时代先后来排列,为《易》(伏羲画八卦,时代最早),《书》(把首篇《尧典》说是尧时候写的),《诗》(把《商颂》说是殷商时写的),《礼》(说是周公制礼),《春秋》(说是孔子修的)。

2不讲家法。

3特别重视《周礼》,尊周公,从事章句训诂,讲名物制度。

4不讲谶纬

5比较简单不繁琐。

6所作训诂很有用,讲制度则不如今文所讲的古。

（五）今、古文何在何时占优势？

1西汉末年，班固《白虎通义》，主今文。

2东汉，古文占优势，但今文仍是官学。

三．汉末魏晋经学

（一）兼今古的经学：兼通古文今文而以古文为主的经学。

代表人物：马融、郑玄、王肃。

1马融：马融的书没有传下来

2郑玄：《诗毛传郑笺》(郑玄给古文经学的《毛传》作笺,兼用今文齐鲁韩三家诗说)和《周礼注》(古文经学)、《仪礼注》(兼用今文古文)、《礼记注》。

3王肃：自己具名的著作没有传下来。孔子家学的伪书《孔子家语》和《孔丛子》,都是王肃所伪造。《伪古文尚书》及《伪孔安国传》,清丁晏考证也认为伪造者是王肃。

（二）玄学家注经

1代表人物和著作：魏王弼的《周易注》和何晏的《论语集解》。

2特色：简要易于通读,既无今文经学的那种微言大义以及谶纬怪谈,也不拘于古文经学穷究的训诂制度。

（三）其他流传至今的经注:

1西晋杜预的《春秋经传集解》(欲取代东汉时流行的《左传》贾逵注和服虔注)

2东晋郭璞的《尔雅注》

3东晋范宁的《春秋谷梁传集解》(混合了《春秋》三传之所说)。

一．南北朝隋唐经学与义疏之学

（一）义疏=讲疏=疏

1注的含义：解释经传的叫做注。

2疏的含义：既解释经传同时也解释注。

（二）南北朝的“南学”、“北学”之分：

1南学：《周易》则王辅嗣(王弼注),《尚书》则孔安国(伪孔传),《左传》则杜元凯(杜预集解);

2北学：《左传》则服子慎(服虔注),《尚书》《周易》则郑康成(郑玄注);《诗》则并主于毛公(毛传以及郑玄笺),《礼》则同遵于郑氏(郑玄的《三礼》注)。”

3北学全部是郑学(郑玄注《左传》未成,与服虔,见《世说新语·文学》,南学则加进了魏晋时的新东西。郑注的《三礼》南北都重视。

（三）隋统一后，只行南学。

（四）唐孔颖达《五经正义》和陆德明《经典释文》

1孔颖达《五经正义》：唐初孔颖达等官修《周易》《尚书》《毛诗》《礼记》《春秋左传》的《五经正义》,就是用南学的注本作疏。其中很多地方还承用了前北隋刘焯、刘炫等人的旧疏,不都由孔颖达等人创作。

2陆德明《经典释文》三十卷：给除了《孟子》以外的《周易》《尚书》等十二经,再加上《老子》《庄子》,作了释文,列举这些经典中某些字的读音,某些词语的训诂,某些传本的文字异同。再加上一卷“序录”讲述这些经典的传授,是研究经学以及《老》《庄》的要籍。

（五）唐初纂修《五经正义》和其他新疏后，旧疏失传，仅剩保留在日本，清中叶倒输我国的梁代皇侃《论语义疏》。

二．十三经注疏及其他

（一）演变过程：

1唐文宗开成二年刻成《开成石经》：刻九经（《周易》《尚书》《毛诗》《周礼》《仪礼》《礼记》《春秋左传》《公羊传》《谷梁传》）和《论语》《孝经》《尔雅》的正文,附加张参的《五经文字》和唐玄度的《九经字样》。

2孟蜀广政七年母昭裔立《广政石经》，带注，九经少了《公羊》《谷梁》，北宋时田况补刻。

3徽宗宣和年间席贡增刻了《孟子》，形成十三经。

（二）《十三经》的疏：孔颖达《五经正义》+唐人宋初人给《孟子》以外其中经传加上了疏+《孟子注疏》：

《周易正义》十卷,魏王弼、晋韩康伯注,唐孔颖达等正义。

《尚书正义》二十卷,伪汉孔安国传,唐孔颖达等正义。

《毛诗正义》七十卷,汉毛亨传,郑玄笺、唐孔颖达等正义。

《周礼注疏》四十二卷,汉郑玄注,唐贾公彦硫。

《仪礼注疏》五十卷,汉郑玄注,唐贾公彦疏。

《礼记正义》六十三卷,汉郑玄注,唐孔颖达等正义。

《春秋左传正义》六十卷,晋杜预集解,唐孔颖达等正义。

《春秋公羊传注疏》二十八卷,汉何休解诂,唐徐彦疏

《春秋谷梁传注疏》二十卷,晋范宁集解,唐杨士勋疏。

《论语注疏》二十卷,魏何晏等集解,北宋邢昺疏

《孝经注疏》九卷,唐玄宗注,北宋邢昺疏。

《尔雅注疏》十卷,晋郭璞注,北宋邢昺疏。

《孟子注疏》十四卷,汉赵岐注,伪宋孙奭疏。

（三）刊刻形式：

1北宋时“正义”和“疏”不和经注编在一起，而是单独刊刻。

2南宋后注疏合编。

3通行的善本：清阮元等据宋元间十行本等校勘、嘉庆二十年江西南昌府学刊刻附有校勘记的《十三经注疏》，但今天看来仍不尽完美,还有重加校勘的必要。

（四）其他经学要籍：

1唐李鼎祚的《周易集解》十七卷,保存了不少王弼以外的《易》的古注；

2传为伏生的《尚书大传》；

3清陈寿祺校注本八卷,保存一些《书》的古经义。《韩诗外传》十卷,保存了三家诗中韩诗的一些遗说；

4董仲舒的《春秋繁露》十七卷；

5何休的《春秋公羊传解诂》,同为保存西汉今文经说的要籍。

（五）《十三经》的版本系统：经注和疏在北宋时是分别刊刻的,到南宋时两浙东路茶盐司和绍兴府才编到一起刊刻,建阳书坊才加进释文;到宋元间才有成套的经注、疏、释文合刻本;到明嘉靖时李元阳在福建刊刻有释文的《十三经注疏》。从此递嬗出万历北监本、汲古阁本以至清乾隆时的殿本,直到嘉庆时阮元才重新搜寻各种旧本校勘重刻。这样就把《十三经》的版本系统作了个初步的清理。
一．学风的转变

（一）从中唐时开始的摆脱旧注疏在经学上别求理解的新风气。

（二）此风气在北宋时大盛。

宋末王应麟《困学纪闻·经说》引陆游所说:“唐及国初,学者不敢议孔安国、郑康成,况圣人乎!自庆历(北宋仁宗年号)后诸儒发明经旨,非前人所及;然排《系辞》(按指欧阳修《易童子问》,谓《系辞》《文言》等“易传”非孔子作),毁《周礼》(指欧阳修《居士集·问进土策》、苏轼《东坡续集·策·天子六军之制》、苏辙《栾城后集·历代论·周公》,均谓《周礼》非周公作),疑《孟子》(指李觏《盱江集·常语》、司马光《司马温公文集·疑孟》,都非议《孟子》书),讥《书》之《胤征》《顾命》(指苏轼《书传》以《胤征》为羿篡位时事,《顾命》下篇《康王之诰》为失礼),黜《诗》之序(指晁说之《景迂生集·诗序论》否定《毛诗序》所说),不难于议经,况传、注乎!”

（三）南宋，朱熹及其后学另行注释《五经》，自己还编注了《四书章句集注》。

二．四书章句集注和宋元人注五经

（一）《四书章句集注》十九卷

1内容：《大学章句》一卷、《中庸章句》一卷、《论语集注》十卷、《孟子集注》七卷。

2编定的次序：《大学》《论语》《孟子》《中庸》,是按治学的先后次序排列,后人因为《大学》《中庸》篇幅都小,就把《中庸》移前以便和《大学》合成一册了。

3撰写了《四书或问》三十九卷，说明注此《四书》的用意,但所注其后又有改定,因此和《或问》颇有抵牾之处。

（二）宋元人注五经

《易传》六卷,北宋程颐撰。《周易本义》十二卷,朱熹撰。元人又合编两书为《周易传义》十卷。

《书集传》六卷,南宋蔡沈撰,经文用《伪古文尚书》五十八篇的本子。

《诗集传》二十卷,朱熹撰。

《礼记集说》(原名《云庄礼记集说》)十六卷,元陈澔撰,不注《大学》《中庸》。

《春秋胡氏传》三十卷,南宋胡安国撰。

1与科举考试有关：

《元史·选举志》“科目”记元仁宗皇庆二年十一月诏定科举《大学》《论语》《孟子》《中庸》内出题并用朱氏章句集注;《诗》以朱氏为主,《尚书》以蔡氏为主,《周易》以程氏朱氏为主,以上三经兼用古注疏;《春秋》许用三传及胡氏传;《礼记》用古注疏。陈澔《礼记集说》晚出外都已用了宋人的注本。明永乐时官修《四书五经大全》,《五经》就全用上列宋元人注,不再用所谓古注疏。其后《大全》虽未通行,明人及清初人刊刻诵读《五经》就一直用这宋元人注以应付科举考试。到清乾隆时才取消《春秋胡氏传》,改用《春秋左传》和杜预注

2 优点：通顺易懂。

3 缺点：这些注包括朱熹的都多少夹进宋人理学的话头,免不了失去点先秦时的真相。

Step1 打开 Office，打开你的 Essay Step2 找到 Reference 标签 Step3 点击，找到 Citation and Bibliography 那一栏 Step4 点击 Inert Citation，选择 Add New Source Step5 在d出的对话框里选择你的 Reference 种类，并填写相关的信息，打钩下面的 Show All Fields 可以填写更多信息，但是前面有红色标记的是比较重要的信息，推荐填写。填写 完成后点击 OK。 Step6 如果你有不止一个 Source 可以选择继续添加。 Step7 点击 Reference Style 选择需要的格式，大家应该都是需要 Harvard Style 的吧~舍友 的渣 Word（在学校 MIT 办公室装的）没有 Harvard Style，但是学校机房是有的~LZ 亲测~ Step8 一切弄好之后回到你的 Essay，把文字输入光标移动到你需要插入 Reference 的地 方，点击 Bibliography，选择 Bibliography 那一坨。 Step9 点击之后会出现这么一坨，下面的就是你的 Reference，这时候只要吧上面的 Bibliography 换成 Reference 然后改下字体颜色就成啦~ 这样一个完美的 Reference 就弄好啦~ 这样的 Reference 是绝对不会被挑剔的

一。The Development of English Vocabulary
There are about one million English words in all English is also an international language in this society You can see English words almost every where, even in non-English-spoken countries
How does English come into being Why it has so many vocabularies In the following passage, I will give you a general picture about these two questions
The English people are of a mixed blood The early inhabitants of the island we now call England were Britons, but in fact all the races were the invaders came from Europe Nobody knows very much about Britain before the Romans came during the first century BC, but there had been at least three invasions before that The first of these was by a dark-haired Mediterranean race called the Iberians The other two were by Celtic tribes: one is Gaels, whose descendants are the modern Scots and Irish; another is the Britons, who gave their name to the whole island of Britain These were the people whom the Romans conquered The Romans gave the Britons a good deal of their civilization Then at the beginning of the fifth century Britain was invaded by three tribes from the northern Europe: the Angles, the Saxons, and the Jutes These three tribes merged into one people, and the three dialects they spoke naturally grew into a single language, the English language
But at first, the English word made up of only a small part of native words and some borrowed words The native words were the core words of English According to a kind of classification of language, English is classified as a Teutonic language, which is a Germanic language To be more exact, English belongs to the low West Germanic branch of the Indo-European family Because of the complex history of Briton, the language of English is of a mixed character On one hand, it shares with West Germanic languages many common words and similar grammatical structures On the other hand, more than half of the English vocabulary is derived from Latin and French Besides, English has accepted words from other languages of the world in the course of its historical development
The history of English language is divided into three periods:
1 the old English period ( from 450AD to 1150 AD )
2 the middle English period ( from 1150AD to 1500AD )
3 the modern English period ( from 1500AD up to now )
As I mentioned above, in fact, that there is also a period we can call it the pre-old English period, which includes the Celts, the Scottish and Irish races and culture, and also Welsh race and culture were brought by the Celts Then the Romans brought Latin alphabet and civilization to this land After these two were the formation of the Anglo-Saxons people, which is the original English race and language
Old English consists mainly about the native language of Anglo-Saxons people The period from 450AD to 1150AD is known as the old English period, and it is also been called Anglo-Saxons period It is described as the period of full inflections, since during most of this period the case endings of the noun, the adjective, and the conjugation of the verb were not weakened Also during this period, when the Norman Conquest in 1066AD brought French to England, and much of the English vocabulary was replaced by words borrowed from French and Latin
Old English is a synthetic language (There are two classes of languages in the world: synthetic and analytic A synthetic language is one which shows the relation of words in a sentence largely by means of inflections An analytic language is one which indicates the relation of words in a sentence by means of word order, prepositions or auxiliary verbs, rather than by inflections) Old English nouns and adjectives have four cases: the nominative case, the genitive case, the dative case and the accusative case Apart from these four cases, Latin nouns have the ablative and locative cases
Middle English period is from 1150AD to 1500AD During this period the inflections which had begun to break down towards the end of the old English period, became greatly reduced, and it is known as the period of leveled inflections The Norman Conquer was the cause of this change The change of this period had a great effect on both grammar and vocabulary In grammar English has changed from a highly inflected language to an analytic language In this period many old English words were lost, but thousands of words borrowed from French and Latin appeared in the English vocabulary French influence on the English vocabulary is much more direct and observable The number of French words that came into English was very numerous More than half of the English vocabulary is derived from Latin
Modern English period is from 1500 to the present A large part of the original inflectional system has disappeared, and it is known as the period of lost inflections We may divide this period into two parts: the early Modern English period and the Late Modern English period
The early modern English period extends from 1500AD to 1700AD The chief influence of this time was the great humanistic movement of the Renaissance In this period the study of the Latin and Greek classics was stressed, so the influence of Latin and Greek on English was great
The late modern English period started after 1700AD The eighteenth century in England was a time of stabilizing and purifying the English language The publication in 1755AD of A Dictionary of the English Language edited by Samuel Johnson was a typical example of consolidating and purifying the English language in this period He set a standard for using English words in spelling, meaning and usage In the eighteenth century French greatly influenced English The number of French words in the period from 1650AD to 1800AD increased rapidly Such as: ballet, cartoon, champagne, cohesion, dentist, patrol, publicity, routing, etc
Meanwhile the territorial expansion of the English empire in this period resulted in the expansion of the English vocabulary Thus, there are many words flow into English vocabulary, which includes American Indian words, Mexican words, Peru words, Brazil words, India and African words
The nineteenth and twentieth centuries are a period of rapid expansion for the English vocabulary in the history of the English language In this period many changes have taken place Especially the great development of science and technology is reflected in the English vocabulary
Besides, the great changes in industry, in political and social lives, in sports and amusements all have contributed a great deal to the English vocabulary
Since the Second World War the English vocabulary has been affected powerfully by social, political, economic, especially scientific and technical changes The English vocabulary not only changes, but also changes quickly in this period Thousands of new words are added, existing words acquire new meaning and old words die out
Till now, the English vocabulary is still changing, some words come out and some die out In a word, as society is constantly in a state of development, so is language Society depends on language for its existence As society develops new objects are created that require the invention of new words and expressions Therefore, the changing of English vocabulary is an endless changing process
Bibliography:
陆国强，published in 1999，
Modern English Lexicology (new edition)
Adams, Valerie, published in1982,
An Introduction to Modern English Word-formation
戴炜栋，published in 2002，
A New Concise Course on Linguistics for Students of English
朱永涛，published in 1997，
The Society and Culture of Major English-speaking Countries
林承璋，published in 1987，
An Introduction to English Lexicology
也可以写广告中的词汇特点：
The Lexical Features of Advertisement on Newspaper
Newspapers are generally the cheapest way to reach a mess audiences,and the timing is fastAdverments make an important part on English NewspaperWe live in a world of advertisingAdvertising provides a valuable service to society and its members,because it defines for consumers the meaning and the role of products,services and institutionsNewspaper advertisements’ main text use words for the spread of vector,and must must be simple eye-catching,because of the layout of resourcesTo some extent,the newspaper advertisements content mainly rely on language to expressAdvertising language ,playing a role of communication and persuasion,has developed its own featuresNaturally,advertisements in English have become an important means of communicating ideas,demoinstrating a variety of linguistic features of its ownThe present study discusses some lexical features of English advertisement texts
ⅠChoose the simple words
Advertiment language must be easily understood terms so that readers can get information as soon as possibleIn advertising,simple words can win the consumers by their exact,effective expression an d a kind of closenessEg
① Take timeAny time
Continuous using two “time” can make the language simple and clear
② Once tasted,always loved
The article should be clearly and concisly understood in order to arouse the interest of customers on food which make them mouth-watering
③ My goodness!My Guinness!
Common language facilitate people to memory and speak,this reproduce the scene of people driking the Guinness beer which is full of praise
ⅡFrequent Employment of Simple Verbs
Simple verbs are frequently employed in English advertisements, which is an obvious wording characteristics of English advertising textsVerbs are the most important part of languageIt is a prominent feature in adervertising english that verbs are regularly used for the ultimate goal of advertising ,which is to enable consumers to buy their goodsSo in terms of the using of words,dynamic and strong word will produce a better feeling effectsVerbs can be used to “touch”the consumer's heartIn this way,they will have impules to buy the goodsEg
① Drink Coca-Cola
② I want you to sponsor a Rice Paddy Baby
③ For incredible speed and accuracy, try the Minolta 7000, the world’s first body-integral auto-focus SLR
In the above examples, “try”,”sponsor” and “drink”are to fulfill the “get action” requirement seem more euphemistic and even more attractive
④ Get noticed Get results
⑤ Feel the Hyatt Touch
⑥ Send today for your free sample, and try the new flavor
After reading the above ads, we feel encouraged to take buying action or make repeated purchases The active voice doesn’t force people to take the passive action while it makes people feel that they do something of their own accord
Ⅲ Adjectives
⑴It is hard for us to think of any really persuasive message without the use of descriptive and vivid adjectives Copywriters like to use a large number of adjectives not only to describe the quality and features of the products or services, but to a great extent to praise and beautify them
Eg
For people who care about their bodies, Dairy Farm brings fresh skimmed milk With almost no fat, it keeps your body fit inside and outside, fresh skimmed milk Fresh Dairy Farm
The adjective “fresh” in Example appears three times to emphasize how fresh the product is, making its quality particularly attractive And the adjective “fit” points out the remarkable function of the product
⑵The copywriter tends to select the superlative or comparative forms of adjectives that carry positive meanings so as to make a comparison and stress the wonderful qualities of the advertised product Eg
① Using Dove, I do feel 20 years younger
“Younger” just emphasizes the magic power of the product
② Discover the season’s newest splendor
The word “newest” , which is an advertisement of a kind of perfume, means “fashionable to the highest degree”
Of course, the advertisers must make sure that the advertised goods or services are actually the best in the same categorySometimes people do not know how superb the goods or the services are in quality Anyhow, people tend to believe what is said in advertisements
ⅣNew Words Constantly Appear
In order to attract people’s attention, copywriters like to create some new words which are more active The new words are mainly used for truthfulness, humor or emphasis in English advertising texts Eg
① Surefit Shoe Ltd
“Surefit” is a new word which makes consurms thing of a sentence”Surely to fit your feet”That means the shoes are fot for your feet
② Give a Timex to all, and to all a good time
The well-known watch brand “Timex” is a variation of “Time + Excellent”, which persuasively shows the merit of the watch brand Thus, brand names get and retain a unique image
ⅤPronous
Pronouns of the first and second person: we, I and you outnumber the other pronouns in advertisements It is because that you, we and I help create a friend-like intimate atmosphere to move and persuade the audience The audience will easily accept a product, a service or an idea as if a good friend recommended themSometimes,we use infinitive pronouns,such as all,everyone,none,nothing and so on in order to feflect the extraordinary characteristics of a particular commodity or it has been spending and receiving most of peopleEg
Our finest time
It is about a well-known red wineA pair of lover drink together at romantic atmosphere
ⅥCompound words
A compound word is often a noun or an adjective made up of two or more words which are frequently used to express more information in limited space Especially,compound adjectives are often seen in advertisementsEg
Kodak Single-use-cameras take pictures where you wouldn’t normally take your camera
It used the compound word skillfully and describe the capability and function of the product incisively and vividly
Now we have briefly discussed the six wording characteristics of English advertisements We have got to know that simple verbs and concise adjectives are very important words in English advertising, and that new words which are attractively used to stress the new and special qualities or functions of the advertised products Language in advertising presents us with a colorful, interesting and wonderful world in order to serve the purpose of attracting advertising readers Of course, besides the above features discussed in this study, there is much more for further study in advertising language

英国论文中的Annotated Bibliography，你可以对着下面的资料来进行写作：
什么是附说明的资料目录呢？
简单来说，附说明的资料目录是带着注释的参考书目。你现在还是不懂，对吧？但实际上，这就是全部。你知道如何写一篇作品的引用（Works Cited ）或参考页（Reference Page）吧？如果你已经掌握了，那么下一步就是添加注释（annotations）。
注释包括文章总结、对作者的批判或资源的可信度，并讨论资源是否对你的研究有用。
为什么要写附说明的资料目录？
我确定你会说：“给我一个好的理由让我知道为什么要写附说明的资料目录”。我会给你以下三个原因：
这是一个课程任务（assignment）。
确切的说，如果你想这个课程得到不错的成绩，你就写需要附说明的资料目录。
附说明的资料目录会让你成为更好的研究者。
为了写好附说明的资料目录，你需要总结资源。这意味着你要花时间去阅读资源。你不可能找到一个资源，不读它就把它添加到目录上。你也需要去评估资源，看它们是否可信，是否有用。这样做意味着你将要更仔细地选择资源，搜索有用的信息。
不要只是简单的选择谷歌搜索的前几个网站，而应该选择最适合的网站。
附说明的资料目录会为你省时间。
如果你用三个资源来写论文，则很容易记住你阅读的每个资源。但如果你要写一篇较长的论文，要用到10个或更多的资源，那记起来就很困难了。
假设在你论文的第5页，你记得自己曾经在众多资源中读过一篇关于酗酒的很好的文章可以用在这里，除非你有一个具有超强的记忆力帮你记住你读过的一切资源，否则你很可能会花25分钟去找那一篇文章。相信我，写附说明的资料目录可能现在对你来说很痛苦，但只要你知道它最终会为你省的时间，以及帮助你提升你的最后分数，你会很开心的。
开始写作前
一定要做好调查工作！
没有资源，你不可能完成附说明的资料目录的写作，所以，开始做调查吧！
小技巧：做更多的标记，搜索更多的资源。因为有时候看起来最好的资源也许并不适合你的论文。
阅读和做笔记。
你并不需要花时间去记一些小细节，但是以下的你必须做标记，因为你需要他们完成注释：
资源的主要思想。
关于论题或作者信誉的问题和评论。
你的论文可能需要的关键点或引用。
资源在你的论文里是否有用。
现在你已经找到了资源，也做好了笔记，就可以开始写作了。
记住，没有人会挥挥手就帮你完成一篇附说明的资料目录。你必须自己写。
如何编写附说明的资料目录
并不是所有的附说明的资料目录都是同样的写作方式。有些包括个人的总结和信息性的注释，有些是对资源的批判，很多的附说明的资料目录是多种因素的结合，字数是不一样的。
不要假设知道自己要写哪种类型的文章，一定要向你的导师问清楚作业的具体要求。
按照下面三步，学习写好附说明的资料目录的基础知识。
第一步：用适当的APA、MLA、或其他的引文格式。
每个条目要包含一个完整的文献条目。这个条目看起来是你经常引用的文献或参考页，甚至条目都是按照字母顺序排序的作者姓名。
下面一个例子会向你展示引用是什么样子的。
APA格式
Robertson, A (2012) Why fairy tales are important Psychology Today (13)2, 210-222
MLA 格式
Roberston, Ann “Why Fairy Tales are Important” Psychology Today 132 (2012): 210-222 Print
第二步：总结资源
总结是对资源的主题思想的解释。有些人可能会读你的总结来了解文章是关于什么的。这不是告诉读者你是否喜欢这些资源的时候，要客观，只要简单适当的说一下这些资源是关于什么的就可以了。
Robertson’s article argues that fairy tales are important because they teach children moral tales of right and wrong and provide children an outlet for their emotions Fairy tales also allow children to develop their imagination and critical thinking as they journey with characters to magical lands
第三步：评估资源
现在你要写一两个简短的段落去告诉读者你对资源的想法，它如何适应自己的研究。我已经把你要问自己的问题用颜色标记好，这样你就可以清楚看到下面的例子是关于什么的。
问自己以下的问题：
作者可信吗？
这个资源我喜欢什么，不喜欢什么？
论点可行吗？
作者认同自己的论点吗？
优点和缺点在哪？
如何把这些资源运用到我的论文里？
回答这些问题会帮助你形成有力的批判和对每一个资源的评估能力。
下面一个例子会向你展示评估是什么样子的。
Dr Robertson is a well-known children’s psychologist who also has elementary education experience Her articles are published in a number of peer-reviewed journals, and her work is considered credible
The article will be an excellent source for my paper because it includes recent studies about children’s appreciation for fairy tales and features a detailed discussion of why fairy tales are beneficial to children Robertson even includes interviews with children that I may be able to use in my introduction
看，真的没你想象的那么糟糕。只要三步，你就可以完成一篇附说明的资料目录！
如果你需要简单的方法来记写作附说明的资料目录的步骤，那就记住CSE：Cite（引用）, Summarize（总结）, Evaluate（评估）
每部分放到一起
编写附说明的资料目录只需要简单几步，但却可以让更艰难的任务变得容易。
现在你已经知道如何编写附说明的资料目录的每一部分了，最后一步就是把所有的联合在一起，并且确保格式正确。当然大家也可以试试咨询专业的教育组织，像是51due、留学府，上面有挺多相关的资讯信息可以了解。

英语字母组合与英语单词重音
学习英语时我们常因单词重音位置的飘忽不定而大伤脑筋，尤其是遇上双音节以上的词汇，要准确无误地读准其重音，确实不太容易。
其实，英语词汇的重音位置通常是有规律的。例如：有些双音节词汇做名词时重音往往落在首音节上；而做动词时，重音就落在第二音节上了。这些词汇常见的有：addict，accent，abstract，annex等。
可见，掌握好并读准单词的重音有一定的规律可循。
为了便于记忆和学习，现将部分规则按重音位置和字母顺序作如下归纳，并从理论上进行简要分析。
一、归类部分
1．重音落在末音节的字母组合
①以-ee结尾，读音为/!>/的词汇：
appellee chimpanzee conferee contestee decree drawee evacuee em-ployee goatee grandee guarantee indictee inductee
②以-act结尾，读音为/$kt/的词汇，多为动词：
contact contract detract distract exact enact intact interact
③-air，-aire或-are结尾，读音为/#+/的词汇：
affair concessionaire enclair millionaire aware prepare
④以-ade结尾，读音为/eid/的词汇：
arcade brigade colonnade escalade escapade（exception：decade）
⑤以-ane结尾，读音为/ein/的词汇：
inane insane profane humane
⑥以-ceive结尾，读音为/s!>v/的动词：
conceive deceive perceive receive
⑦以-duce结尾，读音为/dj(>s/的词汇：
conduce deduce induce introduce reduce reproduce subduce traduceseduce
⑧以-ease结尾，读音为/!>s/或/!>z/的词汇：
appease decease decrease disease increase predecease release sub-lease surcease
⑨以-een结尾，读音为/!>n/的名词：
colleen canteen pretteen Salween shagreen thirteen spalpeenvelevteen yestreen
⑩以-eer结尾，读音为/i+/的名词：
cannoneer compeer domineer engineer fronteer gadgeteer gazetterpamphleteer patrioteer
(11)以-ect结尾，读音为/ekt/的动词：
affect bisect collect defect direct detect correct confect connectdisinfect eject elect
(12)以-ede结尾，读音为/!>d/的动词：
accede antecede concede impede intercede precede recede retrocedesecede supercede
(13)以-end结尾，读音为/end/的动词：
attend amend commend comprehend contend defend depend extendintend represend subtend
(14)以-el结尾，读音为/el/的词汇：
compel impel Nobel marcel propel rebel（v．）
(15)以-ert结尾，读音为/+>t/的词汇：
assert concert convert desert introvert subvert
(16)以-ese结尾，读/!>s/或/!>z/的词汇：
Chinese Japanese Napalese sudanese telegraphese vietnamese
(17)以-clude结尾，读音为/kl(>d/的动词：
conclude exclude include occlude preclude seclude
(18)以-esce结尾，读音为/es/的词汇：
coalesce deliquesce effloresce evanesce recrudesce
(19)以-ess结尾，读音为/es/的动词：
compress confess depress express impress profess redress represssuppress transgress
若不是动词，以-ess结尾，的词汇之重音位置不固定：
'progress 'congress pro'cess un'less
(20)以-est结尾，读音为/est/的动词：
adjest congest contest digest infest protest suggest
(21)以-ette结尾，读音为/et/的词汇：
cassette cigarette brunette coquette chemisette forssette frisettegazette grisette
(22)以-form结尾，读音为/f&>m/的动词：
conform perform reform transform（但uniform是名词）
(23)以-ict结尾，读音为/ikt/的动词：
afflict conflict constrict contradict inflict predict restric
(24)以-ide结尾，读音为/aid/的词汇：
aside astride beside confide divide provide reside subside
(25)以-ign结尾，读音为/ain/的动词：
assign condign design consign resign
(26)以-ire结尾，读音为/ai+/的动词：
conspire esquire expire desire inquire inspire require respire
(27)以-lapse结尾，读音为/l$ps/的词汇：
collapse prolapse relapse
(28)以-mit结尾，读音为/mit/的词汇：
admit commit demit emit intermit omit permit pretermit remitsubmit transmit
（若是名词，重音落在首音节，如：'limit 'summit 'vomit）
(29)以-ort结尾，读音为/&>t/的动词：
disport distort escort export import report retort support trans-port
（若是名词，重音多落在首音节：escort export import bistort purport等。）
(30)以-ore结尾，读音为/&>/的词汇：
afore before deplore explore restore
(31)以-pose结尾，读音为/p+us/、/p+uz/的动词：
depose decompose expose impose interpose oppose indispose predis-pose propose suppose
(32)以-scribe结尾，读音为/skraib/的词汇：
conscribe describe escribe prescribe subscribe transcribe
(33)以-scend结尾，读音为/send/的词汇：
ascend condescend descend transcend
(34)以-oon结尾，读音为/(>n/的词汇：
afternoon balloon buffoon cartoon cocoon decocoon dragoon festoongalloon octoroon pocaroon（exception：forenoon）
(35)以-que结尾，读音为/k/的词汇：
antique boutique blottesque burlesque arabesque cacique critiquegrotesque Japanesque mystique
(36)以-r结尾，现在分词和过去分词均要双写r（-red，-ring）：
demur incur inter infer occur prefer recur refer transfer
(37)以-uct结尾，读音为/)kt/的词汇：
conduct construct deduct instruct obstruct product
(38)以-ult结尾，读音为/)lt/的词汇：
consult exult insult occult midcult result
(39)以-ume结尾，读音为/j(>m/的词汇：
assume consume perfume presume subsume
(40)以-use结尾，读音为/j(>s/或/j(>z/的词汇：
accuse confuse excuse perfuse refuse suffuse transfuse
(41)以-ure结尾，读音为/ju+/的词汇：
accure impure immure insecure insure inure mature obscure per-dure procure secure（exceptions：'epicure 'manicure）
2．重音落在倒数第二个音节的字母组合：
①以-ial结尾，读音为/+l/、/i+l/或/j+l/的词汇：
/+l/：confidential decrial existential impartial inferential inffluentialinitial prejudicial sacrificial substantial
/i+l/：authorial bimestrial colloquial gressorial material mercurialministerial motorial pictorial prefatorial tectorial visitorial
/j+l/：antimonial bicentennial colonial
②以-ian结尾，读音为/+n/、/i+n/、/j+n/的词汇：
/+n/：academician arithmetician acoustician electrician Eurasian Lin-guistician musician Persian politician practician
/i+n/、/j+n/：Cantabrigian collegian Colombian historian rosarian salu-tatorian subclavian
③以-ia结尾，读音为/i+/的词汇：
国名、地名：Australia Ethiopia Indonesia Malaysia Mauritania Roma-nia
医学：abulia achromatopsia acidemia acrophobia aerophobia bilharziainsomnia
其他：academia acedia cryptomeria razzia encyclopedia
④以-ic结尾，读音为/ik/偶或包括以-ics结尾的词汇：
atomatic atmospheric autarkic autographic ballistic climatic cosmeticenteric epidemic
⑤以-ior结尾，读音为/i+/的词汇，形容词居多：
inferior junior posterior prior senior superior ulterior
⑥以-it结尾，读音为/it/的词汇：
cohabit demerit discredit discomfit decrepit deposit explicit dispiritdisinherit inspirit inherit inhabit inhibit reposit transit visit
⑦以-scence（n．）或-scent（adj）结尾：
acescence acquiescence deliquescence convalescence evanescence obso-lescence reminiscence renascence decrescent marcescent pubescent re-crudescent quiescent resipiscent suffrutescent
⑧以-ion或-sion结尾：
accusaion abolition confusion explosion decision impression persua-sion excitation suggestion invitation
3．重音落在倒数第三个音节的字母组合：
①以-fy结尾，读音为/fai/的动词：
acidify identify intensify emulsify lapidify personify qualify modifyprettify simplify transmogrify
②以-ical结尾，读音为/ik+l/的词汇：
academical chemical electrical political periodical encyclical teleologi-cal inimical theoretical technological
③以-icide结尾，读音为/isaid/的词汇：
suicide aborticide acaricide foeticide fratricide herbicide infanticideliberticide uxoricide
④以-itude结尾，读音为/itj%!d/的词汇：
attitude decrepitude infinitude lassitude latitude platitude
⑤以-ity结尾，读音为/iti/的词汇：
ability curiosity civility facility fragility opportunity personalitypossibility sensitivity simplicity speciality utility vanity whimsicality
⑥以-graph或-phy结尾，读音为/gr$f/或/fi/的词汇：
aerography bibliography biography calligraphy chirography geographylexicography photography planography telegraphy theosophy philosophy
⑦以-ology结尾，读音为/&l+di/的词汇：
aerology bibliology bryology crytology ecology Egyptology lexicologytechnology pestology psychology testaceology teleology theology zoology
⑧以-otomy结尾，读音为/&t+mi/的词汇：
neurotomy tenotomy tracheotomy trichotomy
⑨以-ular结尾，读音为/jul+/的词汇：
biangular binocular consular insular intercelluar ocular orbicularpopular particular secular regular triangular
4．词汇加了前缀后的重读位置
①重读落在第一音节的词汇，加前缀后，重读位置不变：
'dazzle—be'dazzle 'operate—co'operate
'force—en'force 'logical—il'logical
'literate—il'literate 'constant—in'constant
②重读落在第二音节的词汇，加前缀后，原重读位置不受影响，但前缀的字母组合作为一个音节可重读或次重读：
pro'duce—'repro'duce
'graduate—'post'graduate
'national—'inter'national
im'pressionism—'neo-imp'ressionism
（the only exception：'finite—'infinie）
二、简析部分
从语言学的角度来分析，英语的词重音（word stress）的位置是不固定的。英语与某些别的语言不同，例如：法语词汇的重音总是在词的末音节上；与法语相反的是捷克语，它的重音总是落在词的首音节上，而波兰语却独特一些，重音位置总是落在词汇的倒数第二个音节上，因此，这些语言的重音称为固定重音（fixed stress），而英语和俄语的重音则是自由重音（free stress）。英语本身吸收并借用了大量的外来语（loan words），以历史语言学或词源学（etymology）的观点来剖析，就不难解释为什么英语重音属于自由重音这一现象。例如：以-ion和-ic结尾的英语词汇重音往往落在倒数第二个音节上，而-ion和-ic结尾的字母组合则源于拉丁语。以-ee结尾的英语词汇重音总是落在末音节上，若追溯它的同源词（cognate），我们可以看到-ee这一后缀源于Middle English的-e，而-e又来源于Middle French的-é，若再追本溯源，乃是来自于Old French的-é。再考察以-ette后缀结尾的词汇，－ette后缀也是经历了从Old French到Middle French再到Middle English这一相似的演变过程，直至现在，仍然保留了法语的重音特征，与现代法语的词重音总是落在末音节这一规律完全吻合。
以词源学的分析作为探索基点，我们认识到英语的词重音既属于自由重音且并非无规律可循这一语言现象，从而对这一现象进行总结和分析，以求达到既能方便学习又能对所学语言深化理解的学习目的。

你好，其实咱也是学生，也看得不多，只是凭着记忆与风评口碑向你推荐几本，但起码也比胡乱copy一堆有诚意得多不是？
1。希腊棺材之谜
2。Y的悲剧
3。X的悲剧
4。法国粉末之谜
5。Z的悲剧
6。哲瑞•雷恩的最后一案（暂时没出可能）

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