谁能给翻译下这几个LINUX官网的语言

这不是语言 是计算机架构

x86 是我们常用的家用PC CPU架构 现在也有很多服务器在用x86架构

arm 芯片一般用于嵌入式设备

MIPS（括号里面是大端小端） 龙芯是MIPS架构的

AMD64 是64位 amd 的x86

intel IA－64 是intel的 Intel Architecture架构 ， AMD64 IA64都是基于x86架构

PPC（powerPC）多用于服务器，别的不太清楚，没时间帮你查资料。

虽然对许多人来说，以Linux作为主要的 *** 作系统组成庞大的工作站群，完成了《泰坦尼克号》的特技制作，已经算是出尽了风头。但是对Linux来说，这只是众多新闻中的一个。最近，有关各厂商宣布支持Linux的新闻日趋增多，用户对Linux的热情也空前高涨。那么，Linux这个只有7年多的免费 *** 作系统到底有什么魅力，能够获得广大用户及Oracle、Informix、HP、Sybase、Corel、Intel、网景、Dell等众多重要软硬件厂商的青睐呢?�

1.Linux的背景和特色�

Linux是一种“自由(Free)软件”：所谓自由，是指用户可以自由地获取程序及其源代码，并能自由地使用他们，包括修改或拷贝等。它是网络时代的产物，众多的技术人员通过Internet共同完成它的研究和开发，无数用户参与了测试和除错，并可方便地加上用户自己编制的扩充功能。作为自由软件中最为出色的一个，Linux具有如下的特点：�

(1)完全遵循POSLX标准，并扩展支持所有AT&T和BSDUnix特性的网络 *** 作系统。由于继承了Unix优秀的设计思想，且拥有干净、健壮、高效且稳定的内核，其所有核心代码都是由LinusTorvalds以及其他优秀的程序员们完成，没有AT&T或伯克利的任何Unix代码，所以Linux不是Unix，但Linux与Unix完全兼容。�

(2)真正的多任务、多用户系统，内置网络支持，能与NetWare、WindowsNT、OS/2、Unix等无缝连接。网络效能在各种Unix测试评比中速度最快。同时支持FAT16、FAT32、NTFS、Ext2FS、ISO9600等多种文件系统。�

(3)可运行于多种硬件平台，包括Alpha、SunSparc、PowerPC、MIPS等处理器，对各种新型外围硬件，也可以从分布于全球的众多程序员那里得到迅速地支持。�

(4)对硬件要求较低，可在较低档的机器上获得很好的性能，特别值得一提的是Linux出色的稳定性，其运行时间往往可以“年”计。�

(5)有广泛的应用程序支持。已经有越来越多的应用程序移植到Linux上，包括一些大型厂商的关键应用。�

(6)具有庞大且素质较高的用户群，其中不乏优秀的编程人员和发烧级的“hacker”，他们提供商业支持之外的广泛的技术支持。�

正是因为以上这些特点，Linux在个人和商业应用领域中的应用都获得了飞速的发展，据国际数据公司(IDC)的调查显示，Linux *** 作系统的市场份额在1998年激增了212%，其增长速度远远超过了WindowsNT、NetWare、Unix和其他所有的服务器软件。�

2.Linux的主要应用领域�

目前，Linux的应用主要包括：�

(1)Internet/Intranet：这是目前Linux用得最多的一项，它可提供包括Web服务器、Ftp服务器、Gopher服务器、SMTP/POP3邮件服务器、Proxy/Cache服务器、DNS服务器等全部Internet服务。Linux内核支持IPalias、PPP和IPtunneling,这些功能可用于建立虚拟主机、虚拟服务、VPN(虚拟专用网)等。主要运行于Linux之上的ApacheWeb服务器，1998年的市场占有率为49%，远远超过微软、网景等几家大公司之和。�

(2)由于Linux拥有出色的联网能力，因此它可用于大型分布式计算，如动画制作、科学计算、数据库及文件服务器等。�

(3)作为可在低平台下运行的Unix的完整(且免费)的实现，广泛应用于各级院校的教学和科研工作，如墨西哥政府已经宣布在全国的所有中小学配置Linux并为学生提供Internet服务。�

(4)桌面和办公应用。目前这方面的应用人数还远不如微软的Windows，其原因不仅在于Linux桌面应用软件的数量远不如Windows应用，同时也因为自由软件的特性使得其几乎没有广告支持(虽然StarOffice的功能并不亚于MSOffice，但知道的人并不多)。�、

如今，通常可以通过两个途径获得Linux的发行版：①直接从Internet下载，例如RedHat站点：http://www.redhat.com②更为方便的方法是购买Linux发行商推出的CD-ROM，这样不仅可以节省下载的时间和费用，还可以使用CD-ROM直接启动快速安装，并且CD-ROM上往往还包括非常庞大的应用软件集(多达数百兆)，包括各种服务器软件、X-Window、桌面应用、数据库、编程语言、文档等，安装和使用都非常方便。�

3.Linux能成为一种主流 *** 作系统吗?�

面对日益增强的来自用户的压力，越来越多的商业公司将其应用移植到Linux平台，1998年较为重要的事件有：�

①Compaq和HP决定对提出要求的用户在其服务器上捆绑Linux，IBM和Dell也允诺为用户提供定制的Linux系统。�

②Lotus宣布，Notes的下一版将包括一个专用于Linux的版本。�

③Corel公司将其著名的WordPerfect移植到Linux之上，并免费发行。Corel还计划将其它的图形图像处理产品完整地移到Linux平台上。

④主要的数据库厂家：Sybase、Informix、Oracle、CA、IBM都已经将自己的数据库产品移植到Linux上，或完成了Beta版本，其中Oracle和Informix还对他们的产品提供技术支持。�

⑤Intel和网景决定向主要的Linux发布者(RedHat)注入股金。�

面对自由软件的强大压力，微软也在研究对策。已经公布的一个“万圣节文件”中有如下文字反映了微软的工程师对Linux的评价：�

①Linux及其它OSS(开放源代码软件)的支持者正使其累进更多的可信证明，即OSS至少与商业替代品一样的强健——如果没有超过的话。而网际网路则提供了一个理想、高度可见的展示台给OSS界。�

②Linux被越来越广泛地应用于商业环境下的重要任务上，且拥有极佳的大众口碑。Linux性能表现远远超过其它Unix，Linux正在逐步地接管x86Unix市场…�

然而，Linux目前的装机量还低于10%，相距主流 *** 作系统还差得很远。要想打破微软在 *** 作系统领域的垄断地位，它必须满足以下条件：�

①高度的稳定性和可靠性。这是服务于企业级关键应用的 *** 作系统的首要条件。以稳定性著称Linux在这方面远远超过Windows95/98甚至WindowsNT。�

②多样的功能和丰富的应用软件支持。Windows的功能和应用软件可谓花样繁多，在这方面Linux尚无法与之相比，但随着越来越多的软硬件厂商正在加入Linux阵营，今后Linux平台上的应用软件一定会越来越多。�

③易用性。在这方面Linux具有双重性：一方面对专业级的用户，Linux的灵活和高效已为大众所公认，例如你可修改系统的任何配置而很少需要停止服务或重新开机；另一方面，对大多数普通用户而言，则更喜欢Windows的“即插即用”及其统一的图形界面。尽管Linux上有一个类似Windows95的图形用户界面——X-Windows系统，但仍然离不开像Unix那样的命令行结构。需要注意的是，KDE和GNOME项目都正在致力于窗口(桌面)管理器的开发，预计不久Linux用户就可以用上真正完善的图形界面。�

④良好的技术支持。作为自由软件，Linux的技术支持来源于分布于全球的编程者、爱好者及他们所组成的各个新闻组、MailingList、Web和ftp站点等。近几年，许多商业公司也加入了这个行列，它们提供收费的技术支持。需要注意的是，我国在这方面的市场还基本上是空白。�

⑤硬件厂商的支持。在这点上Linux也稍逊于Windows，主动提供Linux驱动程序的硬件厂商很少，但在各种Linux发布中，都带有大量的硬件驱动程序，Internet上的许多站点都提供最新的驱动程序可下载，使得市面上所流行的大部分硬件都可得到支持。除此之外，为Linux编写驱动程序要比为WindowsNT编写驱动程序容易得多。�

⑥性能与价格。与其它 *** 作系统不同，Linux是完全免费的 *** 作系统，虽然发布商可收取合理的制作利润，但往往只有几十美元，远远低于普通的 *** 作系统的售价，这当然是很有吸引力的。至于性能，不仅WindowsNT无法与之相比，连Solaris、BSD这样的Unix系统也赶不上它。在这一方面，Linux具有绝对的优势。�

当然也要看到，商业集团加盟Linux的动机仍然是商业，在免费 *** 作系统上运行的商业软件也引起了自由软件组织内部的分歧；而且市场的运作有它自己的规律，微软的统治地位也不是一朝一夕就可以完全改变的。但是，反映了网络时代集体智慧和信息高速公路上的协作精神的Linux，其前途一定是光明的。虽然它未必能够短期内在桌面 *** 作系统领域获得决定性的突破，但起码在服务器市场有望与WindowsNT一争高下。4.Linux对中国软件业的启示�

尽管Linux在业界已经炒得沸沸扬扬，但它在国内的应用及自由软件服务还几乎为零。根据中国互联网信息中心发布的一个统计报告指出：在国内3700多个Web站点中，使用Linux的站点仅30个，占0.8%，使用WindowsNT的站点达91.4%。而在美国的130万个Web站点中，Linux站点占到60%以上，WindowsNT站点占26.7%，不到Linux的一半。�

可喜的是，已经有一些有远见的国内公司开始力图改变这种现状。不久前四通公司宣布将投入巨资，以Linux为平台开发一套Internet/Intranet解决方案，并以此为核心开展四通系统集成业务，同时计划建立全国性的Linux技术支持组织，带头推动自由软件在中国的应用和发展。此外，华胜等国内计算机公司也在致力于Linux相关软、硬件系统的应用推广。相信随着国内各企业对Linux认识的加深，必将有越来越多的企业加入Linux应用的行列，更多的软件会植根于Linux平台。�

同时，国内的高校应该以Linux为蓝本更新原有的Unix教学内容，从分析源代码和修改内核入手培养大量的高级Linux人才，完善我国自己的 *** 作系统。只有真正掌握了 *** 作系统，我国软件业才能摆脱目前亦步亦趋，被别人牵着鼻子走的被动状况，从根本上为振兴我国的软件业创造条件。

Linux (also known as GNU/Linux) is a Unix-like computer operating system. It is one of the most prominent examples of open source development and free softwareunlike proprietary operating systems such as Microsoft Windows or Mac OS X, its underlying source code is generally available for anyone to use, modify, and redistribute freely.

Initially, Linux was primarily developed and used by individual enthusiasts on personal computers. Since then, Linux has gained the support of major corporations such as IBM, Sun Microsystems, Hewlett-Packard, and Novell, Inc. for use in servers and is gaining popularity in the personal computer market.[1] It is used in systems ranging from supercomputers to mobile phones. Proponents and analysts attribute its success to its security, reliability,[2] low cost, and freedom from vendor lock-in.[3]

[edit]History

Image:Linus Torvalds.jpeg

Linus Torvalds, creator of the Linux kernel.In 1983, Richard Stallman founded the GNU Project, with the goal of developing a complete Unix-like operating system composed entirely of free software. By the beginning of the 1990s, GNU had produced or collected most of the necessary components of this system — libraries, compilers, text editors, a Unix shell — except for the core component, the kernel. The GNU project began developing a kernel, the GNU Hurd, in 1990, based on the Mach microkernel, but the development of this Mach-based design proved difficult and proceeded slowly.

Meanwhile, in 1991, another kernel was begun as a hobby by Finnish university student Linus Torvalds while attending the University of Helsinki.[4] Torvalds originally used Minix on his own computer, a simplified Unix-like system written by Andrew Tanenbaum for teaching operating system design. However, Tanenbaum did not permit others to extend his operating system, leading Torvalds to create a replacement for Minix.

Originally, Torvalds called his kernel "Freax" for "free" and "freak" and with the often-used X in the names of Unix-like systems. The name "Linux" was coined by Ari Lemmke, who administered an FTP server belonging to the Finnish University Networkhe invented the name Linux for the directory from which Torvalds' project was first available for download.[5]

Image:Unix.png

A graphic history of Unix systems. Linux is a Unix-type system but its source code does not descend from the original Unix.At first a computer running Minix was necessary in order to configure and install Linux. Initial versions of Linux also required another operating system to be present in order to boot from a hard disk, but soon there were independent boot loaders such as LILO. The Linux system quickly surpassed Minix in functionalityTorvalds and other early Linux kernel developers adapted their work for the GNU components and user-space programs to create a complete, fully functional, and free operating system.

Today, Torvalds continues to direct the development of the kernel, while other subsystems such as the GNU components continue to be developed separately (Linux kernel development is not part of the GNU Project). Other groups and companies combine and distribute these components with additional application software in the form of Linux distributions.

[edit]Portability

See also: Linux (kernel)

The Linux kernel was originally designed only for Intel 80386 microprocessors, but now supports a wide variety of computer architectures. Linux is one of the most widely ported operating systems, running on a diverse range of systems from the hand-held ARM-based iPAQ to the mainframe IBM System z9. Specialised distributions exist for less mainstream architectures.

[edit]Copyright, licensing, and the Linux trademark

The Linux kernel and most GNU software are licensed under the GNU General Public License. The GPL requires that all distributed source code modifications and derived works also be licensed under the GPL, and is sometimes referred to as a "share and share-alike" or "copyleft" license. In 1997, Linus Torvalds stated, "Making Linux GPL'd was definitely the best thing I ever did."[6] Other software may use other licensesmany libraries use the GNU Lesser General Public License (LGPL), a more permissive variant of the GPL, and the X Window System uses the MIT License.

In the United States, the name Linux is a trademark[7] registered to Linus Torvalds. Initially, nobody registered it, but on August 15, 1994, William R. Della Croce, Jr. filed for the trademark Linux, and then demanded royalties from Linux distributors. In 1996, Torvalds and some affected organizations sued to have the trademark assigned to Torvalds, and in 1997 the case was settled[8] . The licensing of the trademark is now handled by the Linux Mark Institute. Torvalds has stated that he only trademarked the name to prevent someone else from using it, but was bound in 2005 by United States trademark law to take active measures to enforce the trademark. As a result, the LMI sent out a number of letters to distribution vendors requesting that a fee be paid for the use of the name, and a number of companies have complied.[9]

[edit]Pronunciation

In 1992, Torvalds explained how he pronounces the word Linux:

“ 'li' is pronounced with a short [ee] sound: compare prInt, mInImal etc. 'nux' is also short, non-diphthong, like in pUt {IPA /ʊ/}. It's partly due to minix: linux was just my working name for the thing, and as I wrote it to replace minix on my system, the result is what it is... linus' minix became linux. „

— Linus Torvalds , comp.os.linux newsgroup[5]

An audio file of Torvalds saying "Hello, this is Linus Torvalds, and I pronounce Linux as Linux" can be found here. Note that in English, "Linux" and "Minix" are usually pronounced with a short i (IPA: /ɪ/) sound that is different from Torvalds' Finland-Swedish pronunciation of these words.

[edit]Linux and the GNU Project

Image:Richard Matthew Stallman.jpeg

Richard Stallman, founder of the GNU project for a free operating system.Main article: GNU/Linux naming controversy

The goal of the GNU project is to produce a Unix-compatible operating system consisting entirely of free software, and most general-purpose Linux distributions rely on GNU libraries and tools written to that effect. The Free Software Foundation views these Linux distributions as "variants" of the GNU system, and asks that such operating systems be referred to as GNU/Linux or a Linux-based GNU system. While some distributions make a point of using the combined form - notably Debian GNU/Linux - its use outside of the enthusiast community is limited, and Linus Torvalds has said that he finds calling Linux in general GNU/Linux "just ridiculous" [10] . The distinction between the Linux kernel and distributions based on it is a source of confusion to many newcomers, and the naming remains controversial.

[edit]SCO litigation

Main article: SCO-Linux controversies

In March 2003, the SCO Group filed a lawsuit against IBM, claiming that IBM had contributed portions of SCO's copyrighted code to the Linux kernel in violation of IBM's license to use Unix. Additionally, SCO sent letters to a number of companies warning that their use of Linux without a license from SCO may be actionable, and claimed in the press that they would be suing individual Linux users. This controversy has involved lawsuits by SCO against DaimlerChrysler (dismissed in 2004), and AutoZone, and by Red Hat and others against SCO. Furthermore, whether SCO even owns the relevant Unix copyrights is currently disputed by Novell.

As per the Utah District Court ruling on July 3, 2006182 claims out of 294 claims made by SCO against IBM have been dismissed.[11]

SCO's claims have varied widely. As of 2006, no proof of SCO's claims of copied code in Linux has been provided.

[edit]Development efforts

More Than a Gigabuck: Estimating GNU/Linux's Size, a 2001 study of Red Hat Linux 7.1, found that this distribution contained 30 million source lines of code.[12] Using the Constructive Cost Model, the study estimated that this distribution required about eight thousand man-years of development time. According to the study, if all this software had been developed by conventional proprietary means, it would have cost about 1.08 billion dollars (year 2000 U.S. dollars) to develop in the United States.

The majority of the code (71%) was written in the C programming language, but many other languages were used, including C++, Lisp, assembly language, Perl, Fortran, Python and various shell scripting languages. Slightly over half of all lines of code were licensed under the GPL. The Linux kernel was 2.4 million lines of code, or 8% of the total.

In a later study, Counting potatoes: The size of Debian 2.2, the same analysis was performed for Debian GNU/Linux version 2.2.[13] This distribution contained over fifty-five million source lines of code, and the study estimated that it would have cost 1.9 billion dollars (year 2000 U.S. dollars) to develop by conventional means.

[edit]Applications

Image:Linux-SuSE-KDE.png

A KDE desktop on the SUSE distribution.Linux has historically been used mainly as a server operating system, but its low cost, flexibility, and Unix background make it suitable for a wide range of applications. Linux is the cornerstone of the "LAMP" server-software combination (Linux, Apache, MySQL, Perl/PHP/Python) which has achieved popularity among developers, and which is one of the more common platforms for website hosting.

Due to its low cost and its high configurability, Linux is often used in embedded systems such as television set-top boxes, mobile phones, and handheld devices. Linux has become a major competitor to the proprietary Symbian OS found in many mobile phones, and it is an alternative to the dominant Windows CE and Palm OS operating systems on handheld devices. The popular TiVo digital video recorder uses a customized version of Linux. Several network firewall and router standalone products, including several from Linksys, use Linux internally, using its advanced firewalling and routing capabilities.

Linux is increasingly common as an operating system for supercomputers. In the November 2005 TOP500 list of supercomputers, the two fastest supercomputers in the world ran Linux. Of the 500 systems, 371 (74.2%) ran some version of Linux, including seven of the top ten.

The Sony PlayStation 3 video game console, scheduled to be released in November 2006, will run Linux by default. Sony has previously released a PS2 Linux do-it-yourself kit for their PlayStation 2 video game console. Game developers like Atari and id Software have released titles to the Linux desktop. Linux Game Publishing also produces games for Linux, licensing and porting them from their Windows source code.

The One Laptop Per Child project, which aims to provide computing devices to all children in developing nations, uses Linux as the devices' operating system.

[edit]Distributions

For more details on this topic, see Linux distribution.

Linux is predominantly used as part of a Linux distribution (commonly called a "distro"). These are compiled by individuals, loose-knit teams, and commercial and volunteer organizations. They commonly include additional system and application software, an installer system to ease initial system setup, and integrated management of software installation and upgrading. Distributions are created for many different purposes, including computer architecture support, localization to a specific region or language, real-time applications, and embedded systems, and many deliberately include only free software. Currently, over three hundred distributions are actively developed, with about a dozen distributions being most popular for general-purpose use.[14]

A typical general-purpose distribution includes the Linux kernel, some GNU libraries and tools, command-line shells, the graphical X Window System and an accompanying desktop environment such as KDE or GNOME, together with thousands of application software packages, from office suites to compilers, text editors, and scientific tools.

[edit]Desktop usage

Image:Gnome-2.14.png

A GNOME desktop running from the GNOME LiveCD.See also: Comparison of Windows and Linux

The high level of access granted to Linux's internals has led to Linux users traditionally tending to be more technologically oriented than users of Microsoft Windows and Mac OS, sometimes revelling in the tag of "hacker" or "geek". Linux and other free software projects have been frequently criticized for not going far enough to ensure ease of use.[citation needed]

This stereotype has begun to be dispelled in recent years. Linux may now be used with a user interface that is very similar to those running on other operating systems. Users may have to switch application software, and there are often fewer "known" options (as in the case of computer games) but there exist replacements for all general-purpose software, and general applications like spreadsheets, word processors, and browsers are available for Linux in profusion. Additionally, a growing number of proprietary software vendors are supporting Linux,[15] and compatibility layers such as the Wine system allow some Windows application software and drivers to be used on Linux without requiring the vendor to adapt them.

Linux's roots in the Unix operating system mean that while graphical configuration tools and control panels are available for many system settings and services, plain-text configuration files are still commonly used to configure the OS and may be exposed to users. In general, the command shell does not protect against accidents like file deletion, and the user interfaces of older programs are sometimes inconsistent.

The Berlin-based organization Relevantive concluded in 2003 that the usability of Linux for a set of desktop-related tasks was "nearly equal to Windows XP."[16] Since then, there have been numerous independent studies and articles which indicate that a modern Linux desktop using either GNOME or KDE is on par with Microsoft Windows in a business setting.[17]

[edit]Market share and uptake

Further information: Linux adoption

According to the market research company IDC, 25% of servers and 2.8% of desktop computers ran Linux as of 2004.[18]

The Linux market is rapidly growing and the revenue of servers, desktops, and packaged software running Linux is expected to exceed $35.7 billion by 2008.[19] The actual installed user base may be higher than indicated by this figure, as most Linux distributions and applications are freely available and redistributable.

The paper Why Open Source Software / Free Software (OSS/FS)? Look at the Numbers![20] identifies many quantitative studies of open source software, on topics including market share and reliability, with many studies specifically examining Linux.

[edit]Installation

The most common method of installing Linux on a personal computer is by booting from a CD-ROM that contains the installation program and installable software. Such a CD can be burned from a downloaded ISO image, purchased alone for a low price, can be obtained as part of a box set that may also include manuals and additional commercial software and in a few cases shipped for free by request. Mini CD images allow Linux to be installed from a disk with a small form factor.

As with servers, personal computers that come with Linux already installed are available from vendors including Hewlett-Packard and Dell, although generally only for their business desktop line.

Alternatives to traditional desktop installation include thin client installation, where the operating system is loaded and run from a centralised machine over a network connectionand running from a Live CD, where the computer boots the entire operating system from CD without first installing it on the computer's hard disk.

On embedded devices, Linux is typically held in the device's firmware and may or may not be consumer-accessible.

[edit]Programming on Linux

GNU Compiler Collection (GCC) is the de facto standard compiler for Linux. GCC provides frontends for C, [[C++]], Java and others. Most distributions also come installed with Perl, Python and other language interpreters, and several now include C# via the Mono project.

There are a number of Integrated development environments available including KDevelop, Anjuta, NetBeans, and Eclipse while the traditional editors Emacs and Vim remain popular.[citation needed]

The two main widget toolkits used for contemporary GUI programming are Qt and the Gimp Toolkit, known as [[GTK+]].

As well as these free and open source options, there are proprietary compilers and tools available from a range of companies such as Intel,[21] PathScale[22] and the Portland Group.[23]

[edit]Support

Technical support is provided by commercial suppliers and by other Linux users, usually in online forums, IRC, newsgroups, and mailing lists. Linux User Groups have traditionally been organized to provide support for Linux in specific cities and regions.

The business model of commercial suppliers is generally dependent on charging for support, especially for business users. A number of companies offer a specialized business version of their distribution, which adds proprietary support packages and tools to administer higher numbers of installations or to simplify administrative tasks.

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